Special Educational Needs
For many reasons, school can be a very challenging place for children. We all will have different strengths and weaknesses, different preferences and dislikes that made certain aspects of our education very enjoyable and others less some. We all need support and help at some point in our educational lives. Some learners, however, require slightly more (or more specialised) support in order to ensure that they make progress with their learning. We would refer to these individuals as having special educational needs.
Bullet point 1 - definitions, types and assessments
- Definitions, types and assessment of special educational needs (including gifted children)
- Definitions of special educational need and giftedness;
- Types of special educational need (e.g. dyslexia; attention deficit hyperactive disorder ADHD), autistic spectrum disorders and giftedness (e.g. Bridges, 1969)
Defining SEN (apart from giftedness)A child with SEN may have:
This definition includes both physical and cognitive needs. |
Background to defining SEN - The Warnock ReportDiagnosing SEN is not about finding out 'what is wrong' with students! It is about finding out the level of support needed for the child to make the best progress they can.
The Warnock report (1978) placed SEN on a continuum of need, where all children are placed somewhere on the continuum, with SEN children usually being those that require the most help. |
Assignment 1 - The stages of SEN assessmentDownload the notes sheet below, and using your book chapter or information you can find on the internet, produce a summary of the five stages of assessing SEN. If you are using the internet, you should look for information based in the CaF (2000) DO NOT JUST COPY. It needs to be in your own words, or you will not remember it. A simplified version is fine, as long as you can remember the key details. We will have a mini-test on this in a lesson, so be ready.
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Assignment 2 - Section A practice questionsHave a go at these short questions, which would be examples of question 1a) in the exam:
a) Explain, in your own words, what is meant by the term ‘learning difficulty or disability’ (2) a) Explain, in your own words, what is meant by the term ‘gifted’ (2) |
Giftedness - definition and assessmentGifted children fall at the opposite end of Warnock's continuuum. They need little help in class, and yet are still able to achieve the same or higher standards than most other children of their age. However, these children still have needs. If they are to reach their full potential, they need to be identified as talented, and then given specialist assistance in developing their talents. Without this, gifted children are no more likely than learning disabled children to reach their potential. This is what makes the accurate definition and assessment of gifted children also very important.
A widely accepted definition comes from Marland (1972), who states that "gifted and talented children are those identified by professionally qualified persons who by virtue of outstanding abilities are capable of high performance". However, there is a good deal of disagreement about the best way to assess this definition. Some would do so in relation to IQ scores (e.g. Lefrancois, 1997), others in relation to skills (e.g. Sternberg and Wagner, 1982) and others through a combination of the two (e.g. Renzulli 1986). Read the section in your textbook chapter carefully and make sure you understand the debate. Bridges (1969) used scores in the 11+ exam (an exam that used to be taken in the UK to determine which secondary school you went to) to identify giftedness for his experiment (more of this later). Giftedness and underachievementGifted children often underachieve in school. What factors do you think might cause gifted children to not achieve their potential?
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Thinking like a psychologist - making the links between sections...The debate about how to define and measure giftedness is very similar to the debate about how to define intelligence. This is hardly surprising, as giftedness basically is the same thing as intelligence, but it means that if you are organised, you can revise two things at once.
The issues that apply to this debate will also apply to the debate about the definition of intelligence. E.g.
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Assignment 3 - Test your memory
Read the section above and your notes, then answer the question below from memory. The question is a section, 6 mark question and so requires about half a page of writing.
3 C) Describe ways in which giftedness can be assessed (6)
3 C) Describe ways in which giftedness can be assessed (6)
SEN conditions
DyslexiaDifficulty in learning the symbols involved with written language. There are a number of different forms of the condition, depending on the specific difficulty or the symbols which produce problems.
Gary Sturt gives a nice summary of why understanding written symbols could be difficult for anyone: "Phonemes are the distinctive linguistic or sound units that in combination create words. Knowledge of the association between verbal sounds and the corresponding written form is a skill necessary for reading and writing. For example, the word cat is made up of three sounds, kuh —aah — tuh, but is spelt cat. There are twenty-six letters in the alphabet and these letters in combination form the forty-four sounds that the English language employs. The difficulty in reading and spelling is that words are often not spelt the way they sound and that different letter combinations represent the same sound. For example, Hardwick (1997) states that the 'ee' sound can be spelt in ten different ways. They are: e (me), ee (see), ey (key), ea (eat), ie (thief), ei (seize), e-e (cede), eo (people), i-e (magazine) and ae (encyclopaedia).: |
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)A developmental disorder affecting the individual's social and communication abilities. Autism is a syndrome, meaning that there are a large number of related symptoms, some of which need to be displayed for a diagnosis. This means that two different cases of autism may have completely different symptoms to each other.
Assignment 1 - interpreting the DSMThe DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual) is the guidebook that psychiatrists and psychologists use to diagnose psychological conditions.
Look at the criteria for diagnosing autism, taken from the DSM 4. Use the criteria to decide whether the cases in the 'Autistic or not?' sheet should be classed as autistic. Write a short justification for your diagnosis in each case.
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Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)As the name suggests, ADHD has two parts to its make up; an attention deficit strand and a hyperactivity strand.
Attention deficit can be illustrated by behaviours such as inattentiveness in class or being very easily distracted or taken off task. Hyperactivity could include over-activity, impulsivity. ADHD can be diagnosed with enough symptoms from one of the two strands, or a combination of symptoms from both strands. |
Diagnosing SEN - the good and the bad...
Advantages of a diagnosis of SEN
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Disadvantages of a diagnosis of SEN
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Bullet point 2 - Causes and effects of one SEN condition
• causes and effects of one specific learning difficulty or disability
Most likely: dyslexia or attention deficit hyperactive disorder, autistic spectrum disorder or any other need
We will look at the causes and effects of autistic spectrum disorder.
Most likely: dyslexia or attention deficit hyperactive disorder, autistic spectrum disorder or any other need
We will look at the causes and effects of autistic spectrum disorder.
Causes of ASD...
Genetic explanationFamily studies and twin studies are two methods used to investigate the effect of genetics on behaviour.
See here for an excellent interactive introduction to this type of research and also read this article and watch the video below. Then, before we look at any research on autism specifically... test your understanding. Check you can define the following terms:
Also, can you explain how twin studies could help us to answer questions in the nature/nurture debate? Do not go any further until you are confident you can do this... Evidence for a genetic influence on autism?Study 1:
Bolton et al (1994) found that there was a 3% concordance rate for siblings with autism. The baseline rate for autism in the UK is between 1-1.5% (Baron-Cohen et al. 2009) Study 2: Rivito et al (1985) found that there was a 96% concordance rate for MZ twins but only a 23% rate for DZ twins). Assignment 4 - analysis of study findingsWhat conclusions do you draw from the findings presented above? Each study suggests its own individual conclusions, but a more powerful conclusion can be reached by looking at the results together. What overall conclusions can be reached about the effect of genetic on autism?
Write a three paragraph essay. Paragraph 1 should analyse the results of Bolton et al (1994). Paragraph 2 should analyse the results of Rivito et al (1985). Paragraph three should analyse both studies together and find the conclusions that can be drawn overall. Submit your essay through the form on the home page. |
Cognitive explanationLack of Theory of Mind or ‘Mind-Blindness’. Theory of mind is a term that refers to the beliefs we are able to form about other people's thoughts and intentions. It is what allows us to understand and make predictions about other people's behaviour.
Baron-Cohen and Frith's classic 1985 'Sally-Anne' test is a good example of a test for theory of mind. The results of this test, and others since, suggest that that autistic individuals are not able to represent to
themselves the inner mental states of others and therefore unable to think
about how others might think or feel.
Evaluating the theory of mind explanation Although it is clear that theory of mind is one problematic area for autistic children (this has been supported by a lot of evidence over the last twenty years), children with ASD seem to also display difficulties in other areas not covered by theory of mind, such as weak central coherence. It therefore seems that, although theory of mind is a useful advance in our understanding of ASD, it does not explain everything about the condition. Assignment 2 - Design your own false belief testCan you think of another way of designing a test of autistic children's understanding of false beliefs?
A/A* grade extension ideas - Taking a holistic view: levels of explanationLevels of explanation
It is important to understand that the different approaches to psychology are not necessarily rivals, whose explanations always contradict each other. This is not true. In fact, different approaches may simply be describing the same process, but from a different level of explanation. In other words they are just describing the thing in a different way and focusing on a different aspect of it. For example, autism is still the same thing, regardless of the level of explanation used, it is just that some theories will focus on cognitive aspects of the condition, some biological, some social and so on. This means that both of the theories above may be right. The argument is not which one is correct, but which one is more relevant or effective at explaining and treating the condition. |
Assignment 5 - Evaluating explanations for autismMake a list of two positive and two negative evaluation points for both the genetic and cognitive explanations.
Try to write them in PEE points, using examples to illustrate your points, as this will make them more useful to your essays. |
Assignment 6 - Section C practiceHere is a sample section C question on this bullet point:
a) Describe one cause and one effect of a learning difficulty or disability (6) b) Suggest what steps could a teacher take to reduce these effects in a classroom. (8) Write about half a side for a) and closer to one side for b). Submit your answer through the form on the home page. |
Effects of ASD...
If you get a question in the exam such as 3b) "Describe the effects of one SEN condition (6)" there are a number of different ways you could use a few different pieces of information. As mentioned above in the 'levels of explanation' section, the effects of autism could occur at a number of different levels. One of these levels is the cognitive level - so the cognitive information above (lack of theory of mind etc) can also be used to describe the effects of autism, as well as suggesting a possible cause! However, there are also other levels that autism will affect, for example the social level.
Social effects of autism:
· Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright (2003) found that children with autism have difficulty forming significant friendships, compared to non-autistic children.
Social effects of autism:
- Children with autism have difficulty interacting in social environments, making it hard to create new friendships.
- An autistic child’s lack of empathy and ability to understand the thoughts and feelings of others is often considered as uncaring, insensitive, rude, or unkind
- They may act as though they don’t want to make friends but this is not the case they often just lack the skills to do so and as a result may suffer from loneliness, unhappiness and low self esteem
- Their obsessive traits can often be misunderstood by others but they can also be a source of common ground with other children who like the same thing
· Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright (2003) found that children with autism have difficulty forming significant friendships, compared to non-autistic children.
Bullet point 3 - Strategies for educating children with SEN
- strategies for educating children with special needs
- Integration versus segregation; for gifted: acceleration or enrichment (e.g. Renzulli, 1977). Dyslexia (e.g. Selikowitz, 1998)
Of course, each SEN condition requires different treatment, as we will look at these in more detail here. However, there are also some more general principles of SEN education that can be applied to all conditions; those of inclusion versus segregation, which we will start with here.
InclusionThe term inclusion refers to the attempt to cater for the needs of SEN children within the framework of a normal school environment. They may still receive specialist help (perhaps through having a teaching assistant with them at all times), but they will spend most of their time in a 'normal' classroom with their 'normal' peers.
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SegregationSegregation refers to the attempt to cater for SEN students in specialist institutions. They will undertake a curriculum and work in a setting designed by professionals qualified to deal with SEN children.
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The observant amongst you may have noticed that the advantages of one approach are pretty much identical to the disadvantages of the other. This is a useful piece of understanding in terms of reducing the amount you need to revise. This is pretty much the same for all of the debates we'll cover in this section!
Acceleration vs Enrichment for gifted students...
The acceleration vs enrichment debate for gifted students is very similar to the inclusion vs segregation debate. The difference is that acceleration does not see students removed from normal school entirely, just moved to other classes (usually to more senior years).
AccelerationAcceleration is, as the name suggests, a scheme whereby gifted students progress through their education more quickly than their non-gifted peers. They will follow the same curriculum, but do it at a different pace.
One common example of this is setting or streaming, placing students into groups by ability. This is extremely common worldwide, especially in some subjects (e.g. maths), without a great deal of evidence to support it!
Assignment 7 - test your memoryRe-read this section and your notes, then complete the following section C, 6 mark question from memory. Write about half a page
4a) Describe two ways in which children who are gifted could be educated (6) |
EnrichmentEnrichment is the effort to provide gifted children with an enriched (e.g. different and varied) school experience, whilst remaining in the same classroom as their peers.
Renzulli's (1977) enrichment triad model
Renzulli's ETM is a school-wide framework for providing different experiences to gifted learners. The model is a triad as it consists of focus on three types of enrichment:
A good video introduction to the ideas can be found on the uconn website here, as well as other resources and research. There is a good deal of experimental support that the model can be effective. Reis & Renzulli (1982) found that schools using the ETM reported an increase in the creative output of their gifted students.
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Strategies for the education of children with dyslexia...
As we saw above, dyslexia can have a number of different forms, depending on the specific area of difficulty that each student experiences. This means that there are a number of different strategies for its management. We will look at one example, the Alpha-to-Omega scheme.
Alpha-to-OmegaSelikowitz (1998) list this as one strategy for educating dyslexic students. It is specifically designed for students who make reading errors (other errors require different programs).
Below is an example of the reading errors that might be made by a dyspexic student... Assignment 8 - test your memoryRe-read this section and your notes, then complete the following section C, 6 mark question from memory, with specific reference to strategies for dyslexia. Write about half a page.
3a) Describe one way in which a learning difficulty or disability may be overcome (6) |
The wordshark system is a computer program based on the principles of Alpha-to-Omega. It starts by teaching simple sounds (phonemes) and then builds up to whole words. The games help reinforce and revise what has been learned. They also provide opportunities for positive reinforcement. Operant conditioning forms an important background theory here, the idea of constant feedback and reinforcement leading to more effective learning.
To the right is a video of the wordshark program... Try to spot the key features:
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End of section essay writing exercise - section B
At the end of the last section we looked at the 2b) question for the first time. Here, have a go at both parts of a section B question on SEN.
2 a) Describe what psychologists have found out about special educational needs (8)
2 b) Evaluate what psychologists have found out about special educational needs and include a discussion of individual differences (12)
First read this document, which covers the skills that we want you to learn when approaching these questions. In summary, you need to try to mention a range of information in question a), so try to mention things from all three bullet points in the specification (so here, something from each of the three approaches). For the question b), try to evaluate using issues and debates (same ones as from AS level). On this page, issues such as reductionism, determinism, ethics, data collection methods, scientific-ness, objectivity and other have been mentioned. Use these in your evaluations! Remember to use a PEE format if you find it helpful.
One final point. Make sure you answer the specific question asked! The 2 b) question will always have a little extra requirement in it, where it will ask you to focus your discussion on one specific area or issue. Here is it individual differences (which you might find challenging, but the information is on this page if you think carefully enough about it). At least a paragraph should consequently be devoted to discussing individual differences in SEN.
Generic mark schemes are given below. Read them carefully before you start writing and make sure your essays fulfill all the requirements. Please submit your essays through the form on the home page.
2 a) Describe what psychologists have found out about special educational needs (8)
2 b) Evaluate what psychologists have found out about special educational needs and include a discussion of individual differences (12)
First read this document, which covers the skills that we want you to learn when approaching these questions. In summary, you need to try to mention a range of information in question a), so try to mention things from all three bullet points in the specification (so here, something from each of the three approaches). For the question b), try to evaluate using issues and debates (same ones as from AS level). On this page, issues such as reductionism, determinism, ethics, data collection methods, scientific-ness, objectivity and other have been mentioned. Use these in your evaluations! Remember to use a PEE format if you find it helpful.
One final point. Make sure you answer the specific question asked! The 2 b) question will always have a little extra requirement in it, where it will ask you to focus your discussion on one specific area or issue. Here is it individual differences (which you might find challenging, but the information is on this page if you think carefully enough about it). At least a paragraph should consequently be devoted to discussing individual differences in SEN.
Generic mark schemes are given below. Read them carefully before you start writing and make sure your essays fulfill all the requirements. Please submit your essays through the form on the home page.
Section C practice question
Section C in your exam always consists of two questions, one 6 mark recall question and one 8 mark application question. There are always two of these types of question, and you need to choose one.
3 a) Describe one SEN condition which could have an effect on education [6]
3 b) Giving reasons for you answer; design a treatment program to allow a student suffering from this condition to make academic progress. [8]
The first question is a straightforward recall question. This is the longest question you will get which could focus on just a single theory. You need to write about half a page, so a simple revision check is to make sure that you can write half a page of description about every idea/theory/study that is specifically mentioned in the specification.
The second question allows you to be creative. There is no single right answer. All you have to do is give practical and specific ideas for how you might implement the theory you have described in the first question into the scenario they give you. About a page should be a good length.
Here you have to suggest how you could use one of the SEN treatment programs in practice. The important thing here is that you make your program specific to a student. For example, instead of just saying "the program would use reinforcement to encourage successful reading", say something specific like "the student will be reinforced with praise each time they used phonemes correctly in building up longer words". It takes some getting used to writing this way, but it is an area that, with a little bit of practice, you will be able to do very well on.
Have a go at the questions above. Please submit your essays through the form on the home page.
3 a) Describe one SEN condition which could have an effect on education [6]
3 b) Giving reasons for you answer; design a treatment program to allow a student suffering from this condition to make academic progress. [8]
The first question is a straightforward recall question. This is the longest question you will get which could focus on just a single theory. You need to write about half a page, so a simple revision check is to make sure that you can write half a page of description about every idea/theory/study that is specifically mentioned in the specification.
The second question allows you to be creative. There is no single right answer. All you have to do is give practical and specific ideas for how you might implement the theory you have described in the first question into the scenario they give you. About a page should be a good length.
Here you have to suggest how you could use one of the SEN treatment programs in practice. The important thing here is that you make your program specific to a student. For example, instead of just saying "the program would use reinforcement to encourage successful reading", say something specific like "the student will be reinforced with praise each time they used phonemes correctly in building up longer words". It takes some getting used to writing this way, but it is an area that, with a little bit of practice, you will be able to do very well on.
Have a go at the questions above. Please submit your essays through the form on the home page.
RevisionTry this SEN arcade game.
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ExtensionOne strategy commonly used with autistic children is Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA). This uses the principles of operant conditioning and behaviour shaping to reinforce desired actions in the student. The video below goes into more detail. Even at this early stage, you should be able to see how the same principles (operant conditioning) can be applied to numerous different areas in education.
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